Psychology,
one step at a time.

Publication bias can make positive findings overrepresented, while online volunteers may differ systematically from the target population. Both problems can distort the conclusion even when each included study was analysed correctly.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Bias without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Control can support internal validity by reducing alternative explanations. An artificial task may nevertheless limit external validity because the result may not generalize to real settings, populations or behaviour.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Causality without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

A treatment effect should represent the difference attributable to the treatment. If attention differs between groups, the design cannot cleanly separate the therapy from the additional contact.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Change without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

fMRI and PET index physiological processes and EEG records electrical activity. Researchers infer psychological processes from patterns, so operationalization, temporal or spatial resolution and alternative interpretations must be evaluated.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Measurement without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Identification makes the model personally relevant, increasing the likelihood of imitation. Vicarious reinforcement concerns observing the model receive consequences, while mediational processes influence whether behaviour is reproduced.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Perspective without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Socially sensitive research can inform services and advocacy, but careless claims may stigmatize groups. Responsible reporting balances potential benefit with privacy, valid interpretation, uncertainty and likely social consequences.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Responsibility without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

An arriving action potential triggers vesicles to release neurotransmitter. Receptor binding changes the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire; the transmitter is then removed by processes such as reuptake or enzymatic breakdown.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Biological approach without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Atkinson and Shiffrin distinguish stores by encoding, capacity and duration. Attention moves selected sensory information into STM, and maintenance rehearsal supports transfer to LTM, although the model oversimplifies each store.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Cognitive approach without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Replacing the experimenter with an apparently ordinary participant removed much of the source's legitimate status. The result supports authority legitimacy as a situational influence rather than blind compliance with any request.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Sociocultural approach without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Recovery is more likely when placement is timely and consistent and the child's health and individual needs are supported. Severe or prolonged adversity can leave difficulties, but irreversible damage should not be assumed.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Models of development without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Children learn culturally meaningful behaviour through family, peers, institutions and participation. Social norms guide expectations, but children interpret and negotiate them rather than merely copying them mechanically.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Development of self without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Social-learning theory explains how people can acquire relationship behaviour by observing models and the consequences those models receive. Attention, identification, retention and motivation affect whether imitation occurs.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Group behaviour without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Filter theory proposes that the field of available partners is narrowed first by social demographic variables, then similarity of attitudes and later complementarity. The sequence may be less applicable to modern online contact.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Interpersonal relationships without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Medication may reduce symptoms and support engagement but can have side effects and relapse may follow withdrawal. CBT teaches transferable skills, though it requires participation and access; combined treatment may be appropriate for some people.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Mental health disorders without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Methadone is a longer-acting opioid agonist, while NRT supplies nicotine without tobacco combustion. Dosage, adherence and behavioural support matter, and substitution is not the same as immediate absence of dependence.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Health problems without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Reduced reuptake increases transmitter availability at synapses, although tricyclics also affect other receptors and can cause significant adverse effects.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Prevention and treatment without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Observed consequences affected performance. When later offered incentives, children across conditions could reproduce much of the behaviour, suggesting that punishment had suppressed imitation more than acquisition.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Thinking and learning without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Learning and cognition occur in environments that alter distraction, cues and cognitive load. A complete explanation tests these influences rather than attributing all performance to the learner or strategy alone.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Cognitive processes without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

An imposed etic occurs when a framework from one culture is applied to another without adequate cultural fit. Cross-cultural work remains possible, but measures, interpretations and researcher assumptions require validation and reflexivity.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Culture in shaping behaviour without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Influence can benefit the organisation when directed toward shared purpose, whereas personalised power prioritises the leader's status.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Motivation in shaping behaviour without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

A correlation cannot decide whether social-media use affects mood, mood affects use, or another variable affects both. This is the bidirectional-ambiguity and third-variable problem highlighted for technology research.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Technology in shaping behaviour without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Synthesis integrates relationships across sources. Agreement, contradiction and complementary evidence should be interpreted in light of design, samples, measures and bias so the conclusion reflects the whole evidence set.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Data analysis and interpretation without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

The brief literature review should explain the findings and conclusions of two relevant studies and link them to the proposed problem, population and design; procedural detail is included only when relevant.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Research proposal introduction without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Because no direction is predicted, the alternative hypothesis is two-tailed or non-directional. It must identify the operationalised independent variable and dependent variable without saying which condition will score higher.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Research proposal methodology without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Self-report on sensitive or valued behaviour can invite impression management. Anonymous collection, neutral wording and validated measures may reduce the problem, but the proposal should explain the remaining effect on findings.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Research proposal data collection without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

The researcher may influence topic choice, wording, rapport, coding and the meaning assigned to findings. Reflexive evaluation makes those influences explicit and proposes safeguards without claiming complete neutrality.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Research proposal discussion without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Health and well-being uses an interview. A focus group of three reaches the stated three-to-eight minimum, but the activity still needs teacher approval, consent, protection from harm and responsible data handling.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Interview class practical without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Using the prescribed method does not remove ethical responsibility. Researchers must consider whether people reasonably expect observation, how identities are protected, whether harm is possible and whether teacher approval is in place.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Observation class practical without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

The human-relationships practical uses a survey or questionnaire with at least ten participants. Consent, proportionate questions, anonymity and secure deletion remain necessary.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Survey or questionnaire class practical without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Learning and cognition requires a true or quasi-experiment with at least five participants. A defensible plan also operationalizes its variables, controls avoidable confounds and protects participants.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Experiment class practical without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

An interview transcript can preserve context and experience; a symptom score supports mathematical comparison. Either type can be primary or secondary, and qualitative codes can be counted without making the original account purely quantitative.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Data analysis and interpretation without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Qualitative research supports transferability through rich description of participants, context and process. Readers can then judge similarity to another setting rather than assuming statistical generalization.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Research considerations without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Both designs compare outcomes, but random allocation is normally possible only when the researcher creates the conditions. Naturally occurring groups can introduce pre-existing differences that weaken causal inference.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Research methods without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.

Snowball sampling recruits through participants' social networks. It can provide access to hidden populations, but connected recruits may be unusually similar and confidentiality needs careful protection.

Watch for: Do not describe a study or theory for Sampling techniques without applying or evaluating it. Separate what the evidence shows from what can reasonably be concluded.