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A proton has relative charge +1 and relative mass 1. A neutron has charge 0 and mass 1, while an electron has charge −1 and a much smaller relative mass of about 1/1836.
For 100 g: C = 40.0/12.0 = 3.33 mol, H = 6.7/1.0 = 6.7 mol, O = 53.3/16.0 = 3.33 mol. Dividing by 3.33 gives about 1:2:1, so the empirical formula is CH₂O.
The alkene carbon with two CH₃ groups and no H becomes a ketone, propanone. The terminal =CH₂ carbon is oxidised through methanoic acid to CO₂ under vigorous conditions.
These tiles show your answers to three questions. They are a starting point, not a mastery score or grade prediction.
Correct answer: charge +1, mass 1
A proton has relative charge +1 and relative mass 1. A neutron has charge 0 and mass 1, while an electron has charge −1 and a much smaller relative mass of about 1/1836.
Correct answer: CH₂O
For 100 g: C = 40.0/12.0 = 3.33 mol, H = 6.7/1.0 = 6.7 mol, O = 53.3/16.0 = 3.33 mol. Dividing by 3.33 gives about 1:2:1, so the empirical formula is CH₂O.
Correct answer: Propanone and CO₂
The alkene carbon with two CH₃ groups and no H becomes a ketone, propanone. The terminal =CH₂ carbon is oxidised through methanoic acid to CO₂ under vigorous conditions.
For parents: look at the explanation together. A correct answer is encouraging; a missed answer gives you something specific to work on. Broader practice over time is needed to understand progress.
A free radical is a species with one or more unpaired electrons. The dot in Cl• represents an unpaired electron; Cl⁻, Cl₂ and HCl have no unpaired electron in their usual ground-state Lewis representations.
Watch for: Do not describe Atomic structure only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Spectator ions are omitted from an ionic equation. The reacting aqueous ions are Ag⁺ and Cl⁻, and they form insoluble AgCl, shown with the state symbol (s).
Watch for: Do not describe Atoms, molecules and stoichiometry only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
In ice, hydrogen bonds maintain an open three-dimensional lattice that keeps water molecules farther apart than their average separation in the liquid. The same mass therefore occupies a larger volume, so ice has a lower density and floats.
Watch for: Do not describe Chemical bonding only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
The ideal-gas model treats particles as having negligible volume and no intermolecular forces. Their collisions are elastic, so total kinetic energy is conserved. Real gases deviate most when particle volume or attractions become significant.
Watch for: Do not describe States of matter only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
A mean bond energy averages measurements for a particular bond in different gaseous molecular environments. The exact bond energy in the substances used may differ from that average, so the calculated reaction enthalpy is approximate.
Watch for: Do not describe Chemical energetics (AS Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Cu²⁺ accepts two electrons and is reduced to Cu. An oxidising agent causes another species to be oxidised and is itself reduced, so Cu²⁺ is the oxidising agent.
Watch for: Do not describe Electrochemistry (AS Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
At dynamic equilibrium, forward and reverse reactions still occur, but at equal rates. Reactant and product concentrations therefore remain constant, though they are not necessarily equal. A closed system prevents matter from escaping.
Watch for: Do not describe Equilibria (AS Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Compression increases pressure and the number of gas particles per unit volume. The particles therefore collide more often. Their mean kinetic energy is unchanged because temperature is constant, but effective collisions occur more frequently.
Watch for: Do not describe Reaction kinetics (AS Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Melting silicon requires breaking many strong Si–Si covalent bonds in a giant network. Phosphorus consists of discrete P₄ molecules, so melting overcomes much weaker intermolecular forces without breaking the P–P bonds inside each molecule.
Watch for: Do not describe The Periodic Table: chemical periodicity only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Barium initially reacts, but insoluble barium sulfate forms on its surface. This adherent coating separates the metal from the acid and inhibits further reaction, even though barium is intrinsically reactive.
Watch for: Do not describe Group 2 (AS Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Down the group, molecules contain more electrons and their electron clouds are more polarisable. Stronger instantaneous dipole–induced dipole forces then require more energy to overcome, raising boiling point and lowering volatility.
Watch for: Do not describe Group 17 only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Atmospheric NOx and unburned hydrocarbons participate in sunlight-driven radical reactions that form secondary pollutants including PAN. PAN is therefore a component of photochemical smog rather than a directly emitted primary pollutant.
Watch for: Do not describe Nitrogen and sulfur only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Condensation joins two molecules while eliminating a small molecule. Esterification combines an alcohol and carboxylic acid and removes H₂O. The other choices are addition, substitution and elimination respectively.
Watch for: Do not describe An introduction to AS Level organic chemistry only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Carbon monoxide binds to haemoglobin much more strongly than oxygen, forming carboxyhaemoglobin. This prevents efficient oxygen transport in blood and can cause unconsciousness or death without obvious warning.
Watch for: Do not describe Hydrocarbons (AS Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Ammonia acts as the nucleophile in substitution. Heating bromoethane with excess ethanolic NH₃ under pressure favours ethylamine; excess ammonia reduces further substitution that would form more substituted amines.
Watch for: Do not describe Halogen compounds (AS Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
The ethyl group has a positive inductive effect, pushing electron density towards oxygen. This makes the negative charge on ethoxide less stable than that on hydroxide, so ethanol loses H⁺ less readily and is the weaker acid.
Watch for: Do not describe Hydroxy compounds (AS Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
The polar C=O bond leaves carbon electron-deficient. CN⁻ donates a lone pair to that carbon while the π electron pair moves to oxygen, producing an alkoxide intermediate that is then protonated.
Watch for: Do not describe Carbonyl compounds only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Alkaline hydrolysis forms a carboxylate salt and an alcohol. The carboxylate ion is not sufficiently electrophilic to react readily with the alcohol, so the reverse esterification is suppressed and the reaction is effectively irreversible.
Watch for: Do not describe Carboxylic acids and derivatives (AS Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Ammonia is volatile. A sealed vessel under pressure keeps a useful concentration of ammonia present while the ethanolic mixture is heated, allowing nucleophilic substitution to proceed efficiently.
Watch for: Do not describe Nitrogen compounds (AS Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Poly(alkene)s have strong C–C and C–H frameworks and generally lack hydrolysable functional groups. Most microorganisms do not possess enzymes that break these chains efficiently, so the materials are non-biodegradable.
Watch for: Do not describe Polymerisation (AS Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
An alkene decolourises aqueous bromine by addition. An aldehyde reduces Tollens' reagent to a silver mirror. Using the two tests on separate samples identifies the functional groups through distinct observations.
Watch for: Do not describe Organic synthesis (AS Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
The molecular ion is formed when the molecule loses one electron without fragmenting. For a singly charged ion, its m/e value equals the molecule's relative molecular mass.
Watch for: Do not describe Analytical techniques (AS Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Cambridge defines lattice energy as the enthalpy change when gaseous ions form the solid ionic lattice. Attraction releases energy, so Na⁺(g) + Cl⁻(g) → NaCl(s) has a negative lattice energy.
Watch for: Do not describe Chemical energetics (A Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Measured current and time give charge. Electrode mass change plus the electron stoichiometry gives moles of electrons, hence F = charge/mol e⁻. Dividing by the independently known electron charge magnitude gives L = F/e.
Watch for: Do not describe Electrochemistry (A Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Kpc depends on temperature and on how strongly the solute interacts with each solvent, especially their relative polarities. Apparatus size and extra shaking after equilibrium do not change the equilibrium constant.
Watch for: Do not describe Equilibria (A Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
At higher temperature the Boltzmann distribution contains a greater fraction of particles with energy at least EA. The probability of successful reaction per collision rises, which is reflected in a larger k.
Watch for: Do not describe Reaction kinetics (A Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Both lattice energy and cation hydration enthalpy become less exothermic as M²⁺ gets larger. For hydroxides, the lattice-energy magnitude falls more strongly, making lattice separation relatively easier and dissolution more favourable down the group.
Watch for: Do not describe Group 2 (A Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
A large formation equilibrium constant means the equilibrium lies far towards the complex relative to free constituents. Ligand exchange tends to favour formation of the complex with the larger appropriate Kstab.
Watch for: Do not describe Chemistry of transition elements only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Enantiomers have the same connectivity and energy in an achiral environment, so ordinary physical and chemical properties are identical. They rotate plane-polarised light oppositely and may interact differently with chiral biological targets.
Watch for: Do not describe An introduction to A Level organic chemistry only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Addition would permanently destroy aromatic delocalisation and its stabilisation. Electrophilic substitution briefly disrupts the π system but then eliminates H⁺ and restores aromaticity, making substitution predominant.
Watch for: Do not describe Hydrocarbons (A Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
In C₆H₅CH₂Cl, chlorine is bonded to an sp³ side-chain carbon and its bond is not part of the aromatic delocalised system. In C₆H₅Cl, chlorine is directly bonded to the ring and the strengthened aryl bond resists substitution.
Watch for: Do not describe Halogen compounds (A Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Phenoxide is resonance-stabilised, making phenol substantially more acidic. The ethyl group releases electron density and destabilises ethoxide relative to hydroxide, so water is slightly more acidic than ethanol.
Watch for: Do not describe Hydroxy compounds (A Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Carboxylate delocalises charge equally over two electronegative oxygen atoms, giving strong stabilisation. Phenoxide delocalises into the ring less effectively, while an alkoxide has no resonance stabilisation.
Watch for: Do not describe Carboxylic acids and derivatives (A Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
The ethyl group releases electron density and makes the nitrogen lone pair more available than in NH₃. In phenylamine, the lone pair is delocalised into the benzene ring and is less available for protonation.
Watch for: Do not describe Nitrogen compounds (A Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Poly(alkene)s have strong carbon–carbon and carbon–hydrogen bonds and lack hydrolysable functional groups. Microorganisms often have no enzymes capable of attacking this inert backbone effectively.
Watch for: Do not describe Polymerisation (A Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
A primary alcohol oxidises first to an aldehyde, which is itself easily oxidised further to a carboxylic acid. Limited oxidant and distillation minimise this over-oxidation by-product.
Watch for: Do not describe Organic synthesis (A Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
A strongly interacting component partitions into the stationary liquid for a greater fraction of its journey. It is carried by the gas less often and therefore reaches the detector later.
Watch for: Do not describe Analytical techniques (A Level) only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
Cambridge expects calculated quantities to use the same number, or one more, significant figures than the least precise supplied or measured data. Three- or four-significant-figure reporting is appropriate here.
Watch for: Do not describe Practical, planning, analysis and evaluation skills only at the observable level. Use the correct particles, bonding, energy change or quantitative relationship where the question requires it.
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Cambridge International · A Level · Chemistry · 9701
9701-2025-2027-v1
Source checked: 2026-08-30. The current official specification controls assessment requirements and option choices.
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LearningP currently maps 38 assessed areas for specification 9701. The visible topic map below is derived from the verified route; the current official specification remains controlling.
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